The Divinity of Jesus: Original or
Evolution?
© Dirk
Anderson, May 10, 2020
Skeptics like Bart Ehrman have proposed
that belief in the divinity of Christ evolved over time just as many legends do.
This is called the legend theory. Over time, the legend of Jesus grew until he
was finally viewed as a god. According to the legend theory, Christians started
out with a “low Christology” which means they thought of Jesus as a man with
some unique powers. Gradually, over time, the legend of Jesus evolved into a
higher Christology, where Jesus was thought of as a god. Ehrman claims the
synoptic Gospels (Matthew, Mark, and Luke), which were written within a few
decades of Christ’s death, offer a low Christology. He claims that in those
books, Jesus made no “explicit divine claims about himself,” and they “portray
Jesus as a human but not as God.”[1]
In contrast, Ehrman insists the Gospel of John, which was written about thirty
years later than the synoptics, advocates a high Christology. In John, Jesus
makes “divine claims” and portrays himself “as God.”[2]
In Ehrman’s words, “Mark understands Jesus…as a human who came to be made
divine,” while “John understands him…as a divine being who became human.”[3]
The biblical record supports the latter part of Ehrman’s statement.[4]
John does understand Jesus as a divine being who became human. However, do the
other books of the New Testament which were written earlier understand Jesus to
be a lower being? Do they conflict with John’s gospel? Did a legend of Jesus
evolve over time from man to God? Contrary to the legend theory, the totality
of New Testament evidence is weighted heavily against this this view. While John
wrote with a style that is more proclamatory of Jesus’ divinity, the Christology
of John is not different from the earlier-written New Testament books in any substantive
way.
Paul’s Testimony
Paul’s testimony on Christology is
crucial because his writings are the oldest in the New Testament. Ehrman appears
dismissive of Paul’s testimony, writing Paul “didn’t actually know Jesus
personally.”[5]
However, Paul’s writings should not be ignored. The testimony of Paul greatly
weakens Ehrman’s case because Paul’s Christology is essentially as high as
John’s Christology. Andrew Loke contradicts Ehrman’s low opinion of Paul’s
testimony, noting the “evidence in the Pauline epistles is highly significant,
as they reflect the Christological convictions present among the earliest Christians.”[6]
Even Ehrman is forced to admit the “preliterary traditions” found in the
writings of Paul contain the “oldest Christology” available to us.[7]
Therefore, since Paul’s writings are the earliest Christian writings on record,
they carry considerable weight in evaluating the legend theory.
Paul’s
Trustworthiness
There are good reasons to trust Paul’s
witness. First, Paul was preaching the same gospel as the other apostles, not
“another Jesus…or another gospel” (2 Corinthians 11:4).[8]
There is no evidence he espoused a different Christology. If he had promulgated
divergent views on Christ’s divinity then he would likely have been rejected.
Furthermore, Paul associated with many early church leaders. After conversion, Paul
spent “days with the disciples” at Damascus, presumably learning the doctrine
of Jesus (Acts 9:19). Later, Paul went to Jerusalem and “abode with” Peter “fifteen
days” (Galatians 1:18).[9]
Surely the subject of Christ’s divinity was discussed during this visit. Even
if not, Paul received revelations from Jesus (Galatians 1:12). It is possible
Jesus instructed Paul regarding his divinity during these revelations.
Therefore, it is probable the writings of Paul on Christology represent an accurate
reflection of the teachings of the apostles and early church.
Paul’s
Christology
Paul wrote one of the earliest and
strongest statements regarding the divinity of Jesus to the Corinthians in 53-57
A.D. This was nearly forty years before
John was written, and about 10-15 years before the first Gospel (Mark) was
written. Paul wrote, “there is but one God…and one Lord Jesus Christ, by whom
are all things” (1 Corinthians 8:6). The “one God” is reminiscent of the Shema
which every good Jew was familiar with and recited daily. The Shema says,
“The LORD (Yahweh) our God, the LORD (Yahweh) is One” (Deuteronomy 6:4). Paul
is affirming there is one God, and he is including Jesus, the “Lord,” in the
divine identity. The Loke writes that
the “only possible way to understand Paul, given his monotheistic stance, is
that he regards Jesus and God the Father to be within the unique being of the
one LORD and one God affirmed by the Shema.”[10]
To prove that Paul is including Jesus in the identity of God, one need only
look at Paul’s subsequent words. Paul demonstrates a high Christology by attributing
the creation to Jesus, “by whom are all things.” The Old Testament is clear
that God alone is the creator. “In the beginning God created the heaven
and earth” (Genesis 1:1). Yahweh said, “I have made the earth, and created man
upon it” (Isaiah 45:12). Malachi asked, “Hath not God created us?” (Malachi
2:1). The Old Testament record is absolutely clear on this subject. Yahweh
alone created all things. Therefore, for Paul to claim that the Lord Jesus
created “all things” is the same as claiming that Jesus is God. For Paul, Jesus
shares the identity of God. It is possible Paul was not the originator of this
thought, but it may have been a very early oral saying in the Church of God. The
noncanonical Gospel of Thomas, although corrupted, contains what some
scholars believe to be the earliest sayings of Jesus.[11]
In saying 77, Jesus says: “From me did the all come forth.”[12]
Both Thomas and Paul point to Jesus as the creator of all. To be the creator is
to be God. This evidence points to a very early belief in the divinity of Christ.
This severely damages the claim that the divinity of Jesus evolved over time.
God alone is the creator and God
alone is worthy of worship. An Pauline statement of Jesus receiving worship is
found in Philippians, which was written 54-55 A.D. Paul writes, “Wherefore God
also hath highly exalted him, and given him a name which is above every name: That
at the name of Jesus every knee should bow, of things in heaven, and things in
earth, and things under the earth and that every tongue should confess that
Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God the Father” (Philippians 2:9-11). Paul
is quoting from Isaiah where Yahweh says, “I am God, and there is none else…unto
me every knee shall bow, every tongue shall swear” (Isaiah 45:23). Paul is demonstrating
that Jesus shares the identity of Yahweh because he receives the worship of “every
knee.”
Not only does Jesus receive worship,
but Philippians 2:9 says he has a special name. Regarding that name, Richard Bauckham concludes, “this can only refer to the divine
name”[13]
The author of Hebrews would appear to agree, saying Jesus has a name “more
excellent” than the angels (Hebrews 1:4). The Apostles baptized in the “name of
Jesus” (Acts 2:38; 8:16; 19:5; 1 Corinthians 6:11). Since the disciples were
instructed by Jesus to baptize in the “name of the Father, and of the Son, and
of the Holy Ghost,” this could only be possible if Jesus shared the same name
as the Father (Matthew 28:19). Further support is found in Ephesians, where
Jesus is “far above…every name” (Ephesians 1:21). Only the divine name is “far
above” every other name. Thus, early Christians recognized Jesus shared the
same name and identity as the Father.
Paul also makes early statements
regarding the pre-existence of Christ. Paul writes Jesus existed “in the form
of God” prior to taking human form (Philippians 2:6). Paul wrote that during
the Exodus the Israelites drank “of that spiritual rock” and “that Rock was
Christ” (1 Corinthians 10:4). He claims the second Adam “is the Lord from
heaven,” clearly indicating Christ’s pre-existence (1 Corinthians 15:47). A
similar statement is found in Colossians, where Paul calls Christ the “image of
the invisible God” who created “all things” and preexisted “before all things”
(Colossians 1:15-17). These passages demonstrate a h high Christology and prove
Paul understood Jesus was preexistent.
Another evidence of Paul’s high
Christology is that he often took Old Testament passages referring to Yahweh
and applied them to Jesus. David Capes aptly writes that Paul “posits Christ in
roles reserved in Scripture only for God.”[14]
Isaiah said Yahweh is a “stone of stumbling” for Israel (Isaiah 8:13-14). Paul
said lack of faith in Jesus is a “stumblingstone”
(Romans 9:32).[15]
Isaiah said of Yahweh, “he that believes on him shall by no means be ashamed.”[16]
Paul, quoting from the same verse in the Septuagint, said of Jesus, “whoever
believes on him will not be put to shame” (Romans 10:11). Joel said, “whoever
calls on the name of the LORD (Yahweh) shall be saved” (Joel 2:32). Paul, encouraged
believers to “confess with their mouth the Lord Jesus,” and “whosoever shall
call upon the name of the Lord shall be saved” (Romans 10:9,13). Thus, Paul’s
repeated association of Old Testament “Yahweh passages” to Jesus indicates he
regarded them as of the same divine substance.
Synoptic Christology
The writings of Paul utterly refute
the theory that the divinity of Christ grew over time like a legend. Paul’s
writings are the earliest Christian writings and they show irrefutably that
Paul regarded Jesus as sharing the divine identity. But what about the synoptic
Gospels, which were written much earlier than John? Ehrman argues the “memories
of Jesus recorded” in John “differ radically from those found in Mark.”[17]
Is the difference really that radical? Or is the difference more of style
rather than substance?
Low
Christology?
One verse used to advocate a low
Christology in the synoptics is Mark 10:18, where Jesus responds to a man calling
him “good master” by saying, “Why callest thou me
good? there is none good but one, that is, God.” While this appears
problematic, Craig Keener points out that Jesus is not “denying that he himself
is good.”[18]
The Cambridge Bible suggests the emphasis here is on the word “why,” and
Jesus does not deny the “good” but “repels it only in the superficial sense of
the questioner, who regarded Him merely as a ‘good Rabbi.’”[19]
Loke views Jesus’ statement as a “temporary rhetorical strategy, and…Jesus is in
fact making a subtle, implicit claim to solidarity with God and his goodness.”[20]
Cleary, this verse can be understood in ways that do not deny that Jesus is
God.
Secondly, at his death, Jesus cried
out “My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?” (Mark 15:34). Was he forsaken
because he was not good or not divine? A more likely answer is the humanity of
Jesus felt the pain of rejection as he assumed the role of sin-bearer for
humanity (1 Peter 2:24). Jesus had “emptied himself” when he took human form,
implying he voluntarily laid aside his divine power and could of his “own self do nothing.”[21]
Thus, his humanity felt the separation and he cried out with a broken heart. Loke
adds, “this can be understood in accordance with Jesus’ role as a human, which
does not necessarily imply a denial that he was divine.”[22]
High
Christology
Ehrman argues that in the Gospel of
Mark, “Jesus never refers to himself as a divine being, as someone who
preexisted.”[23]
While the writing style of Mark and the other synoptic authors is not as
proclamatory of Jesus’ divinity as John, the synoptics clearly portray Jesus as
divine. The evidence below will focus particularly on the Gospel of Mark, which
is thought to be the earliest written Gospel (65-73 A.D.). Mark’s high
Christology is potently demonstrated in the very third verse of Mark, which
heralds John the Baptist as one crying out, “prepare ye the way of the Lord”
(Mark 1:3). John’s mission was to prepare the way for the Messiah. Mark is
quoting a passage in Isaiah which says, “prepare ye the way of the LORD (Yahweh)”
(Isaiah 40:3). In effect, John was preparing the way for Yahweh. This would be
a blasphemous association if Jesus was not divine. Thus, at the very beginning
of his book, Mark establishes an association in identity between Jesus and
Yahweh.
In Mark chapter two, Jesus claimed
the “power on earth to forgive sins” (Mark 2:10). The Jews were apparently
outraged by this claim of divine prerogative. They spoke among themselves saying, “Who is
this that forgiveth sins also?” (Luke 7:49). Only the
divine can forgive sins. Michael Bird et al., writes, “The offense that Jesus’
words provoke is by his presumption to speak with a divine prerogative.”[24]
Thus, for a second time in as many chapters, Mark alludes to the divinity of
Christ.
In Mark 2:17 (and elsewhere in the
synoptics) Jesus said “I came,” indicating an existence elsewhere prior to his
appearance on earth.[25]
This hearkens back to the Messianic prophecy wonderfully fulfilled by Jesus: “Lo,
I come, and I will dwell in the midst of thee, saith the LORD (Yahweh)”
(Zechariah 2:10). New Testament authors affirmed Yahweh came to dwell on this
earth through the person of Jesus: “God was in Christ reconciling the world,”
and Jesus was “God with us” (2 Corinthians 5:19, Matthew 1:23). Paul writes
similarly: “This is a trustworthy saying…Christ Jesus came into the world to
save sinners” (1 Timothy 1:15). Charles Ellicott notes Paul’s “saying” was
likely common in the early churches and is “an unmistakable allusion to the
pre-existence of Christ.”[26]
Thus, the “I came” statements reaffirm early recognition of the pre-existence
of Christ.
Also, in Mark chapter two, Jesus
proclaims himself, “Lord also of the sabbath,” which in this context refers to
his power to decide what is right and wrong to do upon the Sabbath (Mark 2:28).
In the Fourth Commandment Yahweh said the seventh day was the “sabbath of the
LORD (Yahweh) thy God” (Exodus 20:10). This clearly states that the Sabbath was
Yahweh’s. How could anyone else but Yahweh be Lord of the Sabbath? The Geneva
Bible notes that Jesus has “the sabbath day in his power, and may rule it as him
listeth.”[27]
Only God is Lord of the Sabbath. Thus, at the very beginning of his book, in
the first two chapters, Mark makes four astonishing claims about the divinity
of Jesus. He is “Yahweh” that John was preparing for. He had authority on earth
to forgive sins. He was preexistent. He was the Lord of Yahweh’s Sabbath. These
combine to astound the reader with a sense of the exalted, divine nature of
Christ as portrayed in Mark.
In the synoptics, Jesus has divine
authority. The demons obey his word as do the holy angels, who are called “his
[Jesus’] angels.”[28]
Jesus demonstrated his divinity repeatedly, by resurrecting dead people to life
and by performing other mighty miracles. Some of his miracles appear expressly
designed to reveal his divinity. For example, Mark reports Jesus walked on
water.[29]
Job said God alone “treadeth upon the waves of the
sea” (Job 9:8). In Matthew 5, Jesus demonstrates authority over the law. For
example, the Torah allowed oaths in Yahweh’s name, but Jesus forbid all oaths
(Deuteronomy 6:13; Matthew 5:33-37). Only God has the authority to modify his
laws.
The synoptics repeatedly associate
the identity of Jesus with that of Yahweh in the Old Testament. In Matthew,
Jesus divides the good from the evil like a “shepherd” and has a “reward” for
everyone (Matthew 16:27; 25:32). In Isaiah, Yahweh is the “shepherd” of his
people and has a “reward” for them (Isaiah 40:10-11).
In the synoptics, people continually
worship Jesus and he never forbade it.[30]
To receive worship would be blasphemy if Jesus was not divine. Bauckham verifies only God “is worthy of worship because he
is the sole creator of all things and sole ruler of all things.”[31]
Ehrman contends, “Jesus never makes
explicit divine claims about himself” in the synoptics[32]
The last three verses of Matthew refute that. First, Jesus claims: “All power
is given unto me in heaven and in earth” (Matthew 28:18). A being with “all
power” is omnipotent. Only God is omnipotent. Secondly, Jesus said baptisms
were to be performed in the name (ὄνομα
- singular) of the “Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost” (Matthew
28:19). It is apparent Jesus shares the same name as God.[33]
Third, Jesus’ last words, “I am with you always,” insinuate omnipresence
(Matthew 28:20). Only God is omnipresent. Thus, Jesus’ own words regarding his
omnipotence, oneness with the Father, and omnipresence are undeniable, explicit
divine claims!
The Gospel of Mark closes with as
much exaltation of Jesus as it began with. Jesus quotes Psalm 110 to show David
called Christ “Lord” (Mark 12:35-37). The disciples would have realized Jesus
was speaking of himself because earlier, Peter acknowledged Jesus was “the
Christ” (Mark 8:29). Thus, when Jesus said Christ was “Lord,” the disciples
would understand this to mean Jesus was Lord. This is the second time in Mark
Jesus refers to himself as “Lord.” The early church picked up this nomenclature,
as Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen
notes: “The early Christian confession was ‘Jesus is Lord’ (Rom. 10:9; 1 Cor.
12:3; Phil. 2:11).”[34]
He adds, “this attributes to Jesus the same name that in the Old Testament was
applied to God: kyrios, ‘Lord.’”[35]
Ehrman argues that “only in John”
does Jesus make “bold and astounding claims about himself as a divine being.”[36]
On the contrary, in addition to naming himself Lord of the Sabbath and David’s
Lord, Jesus made a bold and astounding claim about himself during his trial. When
asked by the chief priest if he was “Christ, the Son of the Blessed,” Jesus did
not answer “yes” or “no” (Mark 14:61). Instead, he answered, “I am” (Mark
14:62). In the Greek, this is ἐγώ εἰμι, which is the same wording used
in the Septuagint when translating God’s announcement to Moses that his name
was “I AM.”[37]
If that was not plain enough, Jesus adds the high priest would see Jesus
returning “on the clouds of heaven” (Mark 14:62). This refers to the “son of
man” in Daniel who would come “with the clouds of heaven” and receive an
“everlasting dominion” (Daniel 7:13,14). The high priest, evidently shocked at this
bold and astounding claim, violently ripped his clothing, an act normally reserved
for cases of blasphemy.[38]
The high priest declared Jesus guilty of “blasphemy” (Mark 14:64). Jesus’s final statement at his trial was so blatantly
blasphemous, that the Sanhedrin moved to unanimously condemn him to the
punishment of a blasphemer—death (Mark 14:64; Leviticus 24:16). Thus, Mark
closes out the way it began, with powerful affirmations of the divinity of
Jesus. The final clincher is when the heathen centurion confesses, “truly this
man was the Son of God” (Mark 15:39).
Other Historical Evidence
The identify of Jesus as one with
God is etched into the very history of the early church. Bauckham writes,
“the inclusion of Jesus in the unique divine identity was central to the faith
of the early church even before any of the New Testament writings were written,
since it occurs in all of them.”[39]
Even in Revelation, Christ is depicted as receiving worship throughout the book.
Alan Segal notes Jesus “is depicted in Revelation…as the glory of YHWH, the
visible manifestation of YHWH.”[40]
Larry Hurtado writes, “within the first two decades of Christianity, Jewish
Christians gathered in Jesus’ name for worship, prayed to him and sang hymns to
him, regarded him as exalted.”[41]
Alan Spence concurs, noting the letter of Roman governor Pliny declared Christians
met and recited a hymn “to Christ, as to a god.”[42]
This non-Biblical historical document, written by a governor who was not admirable
of Christianity, demonstrates that early Christians held a high view of Jesus’
divinity.
Conclusion
There is a difference
in style between John’s Christology and that of earlier writings in the
New Testament. However, there is no difference in substance. Style
should never be confused with substance. John is more overt; Mark is more
subtle. That is style. However, the substance is the same. Both view Jesus as
the divine Son of God who shares the identity of Yahweh. The idea that belief
in Jesus as a god gradually developed over the first century has been shown to
be pure fiction. The evidence shows John’s high Christology is not substantially
different from the Christology in the earlier books of the New Testament.
Bibliography
Bauckham,
Richard. Jesus and the God of Israel: God Crucified and Other Studies on the
New Testament's Christology of Divine Identity. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans,
2008.
Bird,
Michael F, Craig A. Evans, Simon J. Gathercole, Charles E. Hill, and Chris
Tilling. How God Became Jesus: The Real Origins of Belief in Jesus' Divine
Nature—A Response to Bart Ehrman. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2014.
Ehrman,
Bart. How Jesus Became God: The Exaltation of a Jewish Preacher from Galilee.
New York: HarperCollins, 2014.
Ehrman,
Bart. Jesus, Interrupted: Revealing the Hidden
Contradictions in the Bible & Why We Don't Know About Them. New York,
NY: HarperCollins, 2009.
Hurtado,
Larry. One God, One Lord: Early Christian Devotion and Ancient Jewish
Monotheism. London: Bloomsbury T & T Clark, 2015.
Kärkkäinen, Veli-Matti. Christology: A Global Introduction.
Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2016.
Keener,
Craig S. The IVP Bible Background Commentary: New Testament. Downers
Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1993.
Loke,
Andrew Ter Ern. The Origin of Divine Christology. New York: Cambridge
University Press, 2017.
Segal,
Alan, Larry W. Hurtado and David B. Capes. Israel's God and Rebecca's
Children: Christology and Community in Early Judaism and Christianity.
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T Clark, 2013.
[1] Bart Ehrman, How Jesus Became God: The Exaltation of a Jewish Preacher from Galilee (New York: HarperCollins, 2014), 3.
[2] Ibid.
[3] Ibid., 3-4.
[4] John 1:1,14,18; 8:58; 9:38; 10:30; 14:9; 17:24-25; 20:28.
[5] Ibid., 50.
[6] Andrew Ter Ern Loke, The Origin of Divine Christology (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2017), 24-25. The “genuine letters of Paul” were written 25-30 years after Jesus’ crucifixion.
[7] Ehrman, How Jesus, 201.
[8] Unless otherwise noted, Bible passages are from the King James Version (Blue Letter Bible).
[9] James was also there (Galatians 1:19). Later, Peter was at Antioch with Paul (Galatians 2:11).
[10] Loke, The Origin, 27.
[11] Bart Ehrman, Jesus Before the Gospels: How the Earliest Christians Remembered, Changed, and Invented Their Stories of the Savior (New York: HarperCollins, 2016), 317. Ehrman suggests some sayings in Thomas may originate from “hypothetical Q,” a collection of Jesus’ sayings predating the synoptics.
[12] B. Layton, ed., Nag Hammadi Codex II, 2-7 Vol. 1, trans. Thomas O. Lambdin (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 1989), 52-93.
[13] Richard Bauckham, Jesus and the God of Israel: God Crucified and Other Studies on the New Testament’s Christology of Divine Identity (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2008), 25.
[14] David B. Capes, Israel's God and Rebecca's Children: Christology and Community in Early Judaism and Christianity (Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2007), 153.
[15] Also 1 Peter 2:8.
[16] Isaiah 28:16, Brenton Septuagint Translation.
[17] Bart Ehrman, Jesus Before the Gospels: How the Earliest Christians Remembered, Changed, and Invented Their Stories of the Savior (New York: HarperCollins, 2016), 317.
[18] Craig S. Keener, The IVP Bible Background Commentary: New Testament (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1993), 162.
[19] J.J. Stewart Perowne, ed., The Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1884), Mark 10:18.
[20] Loke, 154.
[21] Philippians 2:7 ESV; John 5:30.
[22] Loke, 154-155.
[23] Bart Ehrman, Jesus, Interrupted: Revealing the Hidden Contradictions in the Bible & Why We Don't Know About Them (New York, NY: HarperCollins, 2009), 79.
[24] Michael F. Bird, Craig A. Evans, Simon J. Gathercole, Charles E. Hill, and Chris Tilling, How God Became Jesus: The Real Origins of Belief in Jesus' Divine Nature—A Response to Bart Ehrman (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2014), 58.
[25] Mark 2:17. Also, Matthew 5:17; 9:13; 10:34-35; 20:28; Mark 10:45; Luke 5:32; 12:49,51.
[26] Charles John Ellicott, ed., Ellicott’s Commentary on the Whole Bible Volume VIII (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock, 1897), 182.
[27] Geneva Bible (1599).
[28] Matthew 13:41; 16:27; 24:31; Mark 13:27.
[29] Mark 6:48-49. Also, Matthew 14:25-26.
[30] Matthew 2:11; 8:2; 9:18; 14:33; 15:25; 18:26; 28:9,17; Mark 5:6; Luke 24:52.
[31] Bauckham, Jesus and the God of Israel, 9.
[32] Ehrman, How Jesus, 5.
[33] The same early baptismal formula is found in Didache 7:1. Paul writes the early Corinthians were “washed” in Jesus’ name (1 Corinthians 6:11).
[34] Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, Christology: A Global Introduction (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2016), 21.
[35] Ibid., 22.
[36] Ehrman, Jesus Before, 270.
[37] Exodus 3:14, LXX. ἐγώ εἰμι is also used in Deuteronomy 14:39, Isaiah 41:4, and John 8:58.
[38] Keener, IVP Bible Background, 178.
[39] Bauckham, Jesus and the God of Israel, 19.
[40] Alan Segal, Larry W. Hurtado and David B. Capes, Israel’s God and Rebecca’s Children: Christology and Community in Early Judaism and Christianity (Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2007), 234.
[41] Larry W. Hurtado, One God, One Lord: Early Christian Devotion and Ancient Jewish Monotheism (London: Bloomsbury T & T Clark, 2015), 47.
[42] Alan Spence, Christology: A Guide for the Perplexed (London: Bloomsbury T & T Clark, 2013), 15. Per Spence, it was written around 112 A.D.